affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).
Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme(e g. [th] is an allophone of /t/ in English. When /t/ occurs in words like step, it is unaspirated [t]. Both [th] and t] are allophones of the phoneme /t/.
applied linguistics: applications of linguistics to the study of second and foreign language learning and teaching, and other areas such as translation, the compiling of dictionaries, etc.
arbitrariness: one design feature of human language, which refers to the face that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.
articulatory phonetics: the study of production of speech sounds.
assimilation: the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound, which is more specifically called “contact” or “contiguous” assimilation. assimilation theory: language (sound, word, syntax, etc) change or process by which features of one element change to match those of another that precedes or follows. back-formation: an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language.
blending: a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial pars of the two words.
bound morpheme: an element of meaning which is structurally dependent on the world it is added to, e. g. the plural morpheme in dogˊs. broad and narrow transcription: the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; the use of a simple set of symbols in transcription is called broad transcription; while, the use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as narrow transcription.
category: parts of speech and function, such as the classification of words in terms of parts of speech, the identification of terms of parts of speech, the identification of functions of words in term of subject, predicate, etc.
creativity: by creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. One of the reasons why language is actually a far more complicated entity than traffic lights is that we can use it to create new meanings.
concord: also known as agreement, is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntaetic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories. coarticulation: a kind of phonetic process in which simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved. Coarticulation can be further divided into anticipatory coarticulation and perseverative coarticulation. compound: Polymorphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes, such as classroom, blackboard, snowwhite, etc. complementary
distribution: the relation between two speech sounds that never occur in the same environment. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. competence: language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules. consonant: they are sound segments produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity. complementary antonymy: members of a pair in complementary antonymy are complementary to each field completely, such male: female, present: absent. compositionality: a principle for sentence analysis, in which the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined. conceptual meaning: the central par of meaning, which contains logical, cognitive, or denotative content.
connotation: a term in a contrast with denotation, meaning the properties of the entity a word denotes. converse antonymy: a special kind of antonymy in that remembers of a pair do not constitute a positive-negative opposition; such as buy; sell, lend: borrow, above: below, etc. communicative
competence: as defined by Hymes, the knowledge and ability involved in putting language to communicative use.
Conversational
implicature: the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, understandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the Cooperative Principle(CP). constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a propisition which may be true or false.
CP (Cooperative Principle): to specify the CP further, Grice introduced four categories of maxims as follows: Quantity: make your contribution as information as is required. Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true. Relation: be relevant. Manner: be perspicuous. deep structure: the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction, i. e. the underlying level of structural relations between its different constituents, such as the relation between. The underlying subject and its verb, or a verb and its object. descriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are just described. denotation: the core sense of a word or a phrase that relates it to phenomena in the real world. diachronic: the study of a language is carried through the course of its history.
dialect: A regional variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists:
displacement: one design feature of human language, which means human language enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present c in time and space, at the moment of communication.
Distinctive features: a term of phonology, i. e. a property which istinguishes one phoneme from another. dissimilatoin: the influence exercised. By one sound segment upon the articulation of another, so that the sounds become less alike, or different.
duality: one design feature of human language, which refers to the property of having two levels of are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. endocentric construction: one construction whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the centre, or head, of the whole. Hence an endocentric construction is also known as a headed construction. exocentric construction : a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent t Any to any of its constituents.
emic: a term in contrast with etic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. An ernic set of speech acts and events must be one that is validated as meaningful via final reaurce to the native members of a
speech community rather than via appeal to the investigator’s ingenuity or intuition alone.
etic: a term in contrast with emic which originates from American linguist Pike’s distinction of phonetics and phonemics. Being etic mans making far too many, as well as behaviously inconsequential,
differentiations, just as was often the case with phonetic vs. phonemic analysis in linguistics proper.
etymology: The origin and historical development of a linguistic form as shown by determining its basic elements, earliest known use, and changes in form and meaning, tracing its transmission from one language to another, identifying its cognates in other languages, and reconstructing its ancestral form where possible.
Fossilization: it refers to this phenomenon-non-target forms become fixed in the interlanguage. Many examples can be found - Mukkatesh, looking at the written production of 80 students at a Jordanian university, found that after 11 years instruction in learning English, they continued making errors such as the use of simple past instead of simple present - no amount of grammatical explanation or of error correction had any effect.
folk etymology: a change in form of a word or phrase, re suiting from an incorrect popular nation of the origin or meaning of the term or from the influence of more familiar terms mistakenly taken to be analogous.
free morpheme: an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word.
government and binding theory: it is the fourth period of development of Chomsky’s TG Grammar, which consists of x-bar theory, Case Theory, Controll Theory, and Binding Theory.
grammatical word: word expressing grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, artides and pronouns. gradable antongyrny: members of this kind are gradable, i as long: short, big: small.
hyponymy: a relation between two words, in which the meaning of one word (the superordinate) is included in the meaning another word (the hyponym) .
ideational function: the speaker’s experience of the real world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.
illocutionary act: the act performed in saying something; its force is identical with the speaker’s intention.
interlanguage: the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language, i. e. the language system between the target language and the learner’s native language.
interpersonal function: the use of language to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles, which include the communication roles created by language itself; and also for getting things done, by means of the interaction between one person and another
inflection: the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, per son, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.
isolating language: a language in which word forms do not change, and in which grammatical functions are shown by word order and the use of function words.
inflectional language: a language in which the form of a word changes to show a change in meaning or grammatical function, often there is no clear distinction between the basic part of the word and the part which shows a grammatical function such as number or tense.
immediate constituent analysis: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.
IPA: the abbreviation of International Phonetic Alphabet, which is devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 on the basis of the phonetic alphabet proposed at the time. Since then it has undergone a number of revisions. IPA is a comprised system employing symbols of all sources, such as Roman small letters, italics uprighted, obsolete letters, Greek letters, diacritics, etc. langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker. lexeme: A separate unit of meaning, usually in the form of a word(e.g. dog in the manger).
lexicon: a list of all the words in a language assigned to various lexical categories and provided with semantic interpretation. lexical word: word having lexical meanings, that is, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and verbs.
loanblend: a process in which part of the form is native and part is borrowed, but the meaning is fully borrowed.
loanshift: a process in which the meaning is borrowed, but the form is native.
loanword: a process in which both form and meaning are borrowed with oniy a slight adaptation, in some cases, to the phonological system of the new language that they enter.
loss: the disappearance of the very sound as a morpheme in the phonological system.
locutionary act: the act of saying something; it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon ,and phonology. Namely, the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference. macrolinguistics: the interacting study between
language and language-related disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnograph, science of law and artificial intelligence etc. Branches of rnacrolinguistics include psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics,
anthropological linguistics, etc.
Manner of articulation: in the production of consonants, manner of articulation refers to the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract.
Meaning: it has always been a central topic in human scholarship, though term “semantics” has only a history of a little over a hundred years. The fact that over the years numerous dictionaries have been produced with a view to explaining the meaning of words also bears witness to its long tradition. Nevertheless, semantics remains the least known area in linguistics, compared with phonetics, phonology, morphology and syntax. metalanguage: certain kinds of linguistic signs or terms for the analysis and description of particular studies.
minimal pairs: when two different forms are identical in every way expect for one sound segment which occurs in the place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs.
morpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further small units without destroying or drastically altering thc meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. Q-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i.e. Make your contribution sufficient (of quantity1) ; Say as much as you can (given R).
paradigmatic relation: a relation holding between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure, or between one element present
and he others absent. parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances). performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.
phatic communion: one function of human language, which refers to the social interaction of language. Phoneme: the abstract element of sound, identified as being distinctive in a particular language. Place of articulation: in the produetion of consonants, place of articulation refers to where in the vocal tract there is approximation , narrowing, or the obstruction of air.
prescriptive: a kind of linguistic study in which things are prescribed how ought to be, i. e. laying down rules for language use. prepositional logic: also known as prepositional calculus or sentential calculus, is the study of the truth Conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the trath value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them. Propositions: whatever is seen as expressed by a sentence which makes a statement. It is a property of propositions that they have truth values.
performative: an utterance by which a speaker does something does something, as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. r-principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale, i. e. make your contribtution necessary (G. Relation, Quantity2, Manner) ; Say no more than you must (given Q).
reference: the use of language to express a proposition, i. e. to talk about things in context. relational opposites: converse antonymy in reciprocal social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. There are always tvo entities involved. One presupposes the other. The sho, better:
worse, etc are instances of relational opposites.
rivation: different from compounds, derivation shows the relation between roots and affixes.
rlocutionary act: the act performed by or resulting from saying soething, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about the utterance.
root: the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed 4.vitl,put total loss of identity.
allomorph: any of the different form of a morpheme. For example, in English the plural morpheme is but it is pronounced differently in different environments as /s/ in cats, as /z/ in dogs and as /iz/ in classes. So /s/, /z/, and /iz! are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme.
surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely corresponds to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.
c-command: one of the similarities, or of the more gener.
Stem: any morpheme or combination of rnorphemes to which an)nfleetional affix can be added.
syllabus: the planning of a course of instruction. It is a description of the cousr content, teaching procedures and learning experiences. synchronic: a kind of description which takes a fixed instant (usuai1not necessarily, the present) ,as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.
syntagrnatic relation: a relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present.
sense: the literal meaning of a word or an expression, independent of situational context.
synonymy: is the technical name for the sameness relation.
Suprasegmental:
Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal supra-segmental
function.
features are syllable, stress, 5.main branches of tone, and intonation.
linguistics: phonetics, superordinate: the upper phonology, morphology, term in hyponymy, i. e. the syntax, semantics, class name. A superordinate pragmatics. usually has several
hyponyrns. Under animal, for example, there are cats, dogs, pigs, etc. selection restriction: semantic restrictions of the noun phrases that iciilare,cical item can take, e. g. regret requires a human subject.
transfer: the influence of mother tongue upon the second language. When structures of the two languages are similar, we can get positive transfer or facilitation; when the two languages are different in structures, negative transfer or inference occurs and result in errors.
textual function: the use of language the provide for making links with itself and with features of the situation in which it is used.
validity: the degree to which a test meansures what it is meant to measure. There are four kinds of validity, i. e. content validity, construct validity, empirical valiodity, and face validity.
voicing: pronouncing a sound (usually a vowel or a voiced consonant by vibrating the vocal cords. Vowel: are sound segments produced without such obstruction so no turbulence of a total stopping of the air can be perceived.
1.All languages have 3 major components: a sound system, a system of lexicogrammar and a system of semantics.
2.CAI: computer-assisted instruction; CAL: computer-assisted leaning;
CALL: computer-assisted language learning 3.design features of language: arbitrariness, duality, creativity, displacement.
4.functions of language: informative, interpersonal function, performatve, emotive function, phatic communion, recreational function, metalingual
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